Fake News: An online experiment

2023-10-16

2023-12-31

We test the hypotheses listed below. All hypotheses that are based on our behavioral game theoretical model are primary outcomes. We test these hypotheses both with non-parametric and parametric methods (regression analysis). The main ingredients are senders’ lying costs and receivers’ partisanship. In our analyses, we focus on observations for which the senders’ messages are not in line with the receivers’ initial answers.

Hypotheses for senders
S1. Incentives: The probability of lying is lower if the truth corresponds to the senders’ incentives than if the truth does not correspond to the senders’ incentives.
S2. Lying costs: The probability of lying is higher the lower the senders’ lying costs.

Hypotheses for receivers
R1. Partisanship I: The probability that the initial answer is "Trump administration" ("Obama administration") is higher for Republicans (Democrats).
R2. Partisanship II: The probability that receivers who change their initial answer from “Trump administration” to “Obama administration” (“Obama administration” to “Trump administration”) is higher for Democrats (Republicans).
R3. Senders’ incentives: The probability that receivers change their initial answer is lower if the message corresponds to the senders’ incentives than when it does not correspond to the senders’ incentives.
R4. Belief: The probability that receivers change their initial answer decreases with the strength of their belief in stage 1.

The following hypotheses are secondary outcomes because they are not based on our behavioral game theoretical model:
S3. Partisanship: The probability that senders send the message “Obama administration” (“Trump administration”) is higher for Democrats (Republicans).
R5. Own incentives: The probability that receivers switch after getting a message that does not correspond to the senders’ incentives is higher for receivers whose answers in stage 1 are not incentivized than for those whose answers in stage 1 are incentivized.
There are three kinds of additional secondary outcomes for which our study is explorative:

1. We analyze whether or not receivers earn higher payoffs when switching their initial answer if the senders’ messages are in line with the senders’ incentives.
2. We analyze the impact of our control variables (for demographics mainly age and gender) and our measures of personal and political attitudes. We also consider if the impact of these variables differs between the two questions (crime and unemployment).
3. We compare two samples: The first sample consists of the decisions of all receivers. The second sample consists only of the receivers’ decisions for the first question (that is, if a receiver is first asked about crime and then for unemployment, we only consider the decisions for crime and vice versa). Comparing the two samples then allows us to identify whether receivers exhibit preferences for consistent behavior.

Our experiment matches two subjects who take the role of either the sender or the receiver. Receivers know that there are two main stages of which only one will be randomly chosen for determining their bonus.

In stage 1 of the experiment, receivers are asked for their belief on whether the unemployment rate in a US state, and the crime rate in another US state, was lower during the Obama or the Trump administration. The two questions are presented in a random order. Participants know that, given that stage 1 is paid out, exactly one of the two questions will be randomly chosen to determine their payoff and that they will receive a bonus if and only if their answer to this question is correct. For each question, we also ask them how certain they are that their belief is correct.

In stage 2, receivers can revise their previous answers based on a message of a sender. For eliciting those messages, we randomly choose two out of four questions. For half of the questions, the correct answer is “Obama administration” and for the other half, the correct answer is “Trump administration”. We inform senders about the correct answer of their questions. For each question, they can then send one out of two possible messages, suggesting that the correct answer is “Obama administration” or “Trump administration”. Each of the two messages will then be sent to a different receiver. For determining the senders’ payoffs, one receiver will be chosen at random. Senders in treatment TRUMP (OBAMA) know that they will receive a bonus if and only if the receiver’s answer is “Trump” (“Obama”). We inform receivers that senders know the correct answers but do not need to report truthfully, as well as their incentives. After receivers observed the sender’s message, we again ask them whether they believe that “Obama administration” or “Trump administration” is the correct answer. Receivers know that, given that stage 2 is paid out, they will get a bonus if and only if their answer is correct.

To elicit the receivers’ responses to the senders’ messages, we use the strategy-method: For each of the two questions, receivers have to choose between “Obama administration” and “Trump administration” for each of the two possible messages of the sender. Payoffs are calculated based on the message the sender actually sent.

In the post-experimental questionnaire, we elicit basic demographic information and personal attitudes, such as their political affiliation.

Overall, we have two main treatments that differ in the senders’ incentives:
• In treatment OBAMA, the sender will get a bonus if and only if the receiver, after having received the message, announces that “Obama administration” is the correct answer.
• In treatment TRUMP, the sender will get a bonus if and only if the receiver, after having received the message, announces that “Trump administration” is the correct answer.

We also have an additional treatment, where the receivers are not incentivized for their answers in the first stage (treatment STAGE1_NI). For those participants, their bonus is always determined by their answers in stage 2. Like before (treatment STAGE1_I), they will receive a bonus if and only if their answer is correct.

We use a between-subject design. Each subject, hence, participates in only one treatment and plays only one role. The experiment will be conducted online and participants will be recruited using Prolific. We will require that participants are located in the US and that they show an approval rate of at least 95%. Participants who answered the majority of our comprehension questions incorrectly will not be allowed to continue, and will hence not be included our sample.

Not available

We first collect the senders’ data and only after we obtained the desired number of observations we collect the receivers’ data. For both stages, we use a randomization approach based on the point in time individuals choose to participate in our study.
During the study, any randomization is done by the software.

By comparing the two main treatments (OBAMA vs TRUMP), we predominantly identify 1) whether senders choose to send different messages when profiting from receivers indicating that “Trump administration” is the correct answer compared to profiting from receivers believing that “Obama administration” is the correct answer, and 2) whether and how receivers account for the different incentives of senders when giving their answers. Hence, instead of having a neutral control group, we use participants’ decisions in the OBAMA treatment as the baseline for comparison.

Individual level randomization

No

We cluster on the participant level.

We plan to collect 2000 observations for senders and 4000 observations for receivers. To obtain our planned number of observations, we need to recruit 500 receivers whose answers are incentivized already in stage 1 and additional 500 receivers whose answers in stage 1 are not incentivized (in each case, 250 for treatment TRUMP and 250 for treatment OBAMA). Hence, we need to recruit 1000 senders, yielding a total of 2000 messages. Our use of the strategy method for eliciting receivers’ belief implies that we obtain 4000 observations of receivers in total (1000 receivers times two questions times two messages). Because our analyses will focus on those receivers for whom the initial answer is not in line with the message they receive, only half of the observations, i.e. 2000, will actually be used.

Because we elicit each participant’s decisions in both domains, we need to recruit a total of 2000 participants. We recruit 1000 participants in the role of receivers. For 500 receivers, their answers are incentivized already in stage 1 and for the remaining 500 receivers, their answers in stage 1 are not incentivized (in each case, 250 for treatment TRUMP and 250 for treatment OBAMA). Moreover, we recruit 1000 participants in the role of senders.