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Field
Abstract
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Before
In this study, we partner with large telecom operators in India to send voters text messages and automated voice calls providing information on major-party candidate criminal records (pending cases and underlying criminal charges) drawn from official sworn affidavits. The information is provided to mobile subscribers in randomly selected villages shortly before elections to the state legislative assembly in the state of Uttar Pradesh. We then examine impacts on voting outcomes using publicly available, official polling station voting returns data.
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After
In this study, we send voters text messages and automated voice calls providing information on major-party candidate criminal records (pending cases and underlying criminal charges) drawn from official sworn affidavits. The information is provided to randomly selected mobile subscribers shortly before elections to the state legislative assembly in the state of Uttar Pradesh. We then examine impacts on voting outcomes using publicly available, official polling station voting returns data, as well as survey data on voters' beliefs, attention and preferences.
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Last Published
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Before
January 12, 2026 08:12 AM
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After
March 04, 2026 07:28 PM
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Intervention (Public)
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Before
Mobile subscribers in treated villages receive a text message and an automated pre-recorded voice call two days before the election, with the content tailored to treatment arm. Control villages receive no messages.
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After
Treated mobile subscribers receive a text message and an automated pre-recorded voice call two days before the election, with the content tailored to treatment arm. Control group members receive no messages.
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Intervention End Date
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Before
March 10, 2017
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After
March 15, 2022
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Primary Outcomes (End Points)
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Before
Voting at the polling-station-by-candidate level; Turnout at the polling-station level
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After
Voting at the polling-station-by-candidate level; Turnout at the polling-station level. In 2022, voting at the individual-by-candidate-level and turnout at the individual level.
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Experimental Design (Public)
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Before
Within experimental sample of villages, randomly assign villages to one of the treatment arms.
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After
Within experimental sample of villages, randomly assign villages to one of the treatment arms. In 2022, randomly assign individuals in sample assembly constituencies to one of the treatment arms.
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Randomization Unit
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Before
Village
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After
Village; In 2022, individual
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Planned Number of Clusters
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Before
Fourth phase: 3,800 villages; Seventh phase: 850 villages
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After
Fourth phase: 3,800 villages; Seventh phase: 850 villages. In 2022, not clustered.
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Field
Planned Number of Observations
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Before
Fourth phase: 5,000 polling stations, 15,000 polling-station-by-candidates; Seventh phase: 1,100 polling stations, 3,300 polling-station-by-candidates
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After
Fourth phase: 5,000 polling stations, 15,000 polling-station-by-candidates; Seventh phase: 1,100 polling stations, 3,300 polling-station-by-candidates. In 2022, 3,700 individuals.
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Sample size (or number of clusters) by treatment arms
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Before
Fourth phase: 2400 villages control, 1400 treated (1/3 information content, 1/3 information and coordination content, 1/3 information and ethnic voting content); Seventh phase: 425 villages control, 425 villages placebo content
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After
Fourth phase: 2400 villages control, 1400 treated (1/3 information content, 1/3 information and coordination content, 1/3 information and ethnic voting content); Seventh phase: 425 villages control, 425 villages placebo content. In 2022, 1700 control, 2000 treated (4/5 information content, 1/5 information and coordination content).
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Intervention (Hidden)
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Before
Mobile subscribers of our partner telecom companies in treated villages during the fourth phase of elections are sent a text message and an automated pre-recorded voice call two days before the election, while those in control villages receive no messages. Treatment messages provide information regarding the type of criminal charges and number of cases facing the major-party candidates in the recipient’s constituency. The message content for random subsets of the treatment villages additionally includes a sentence either notifying recipients that the message was also being shared with other individuals living in their area or urging them to “break the habit” of ethnic-based voting. During the seventh phase of elections, we send subscribers in randomly selected treated villages a "placebo" message only reminding them to get to know candidates before voting.
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After
Mobile subscribers of our partner telecom companies in treated villages during the fourth phase of elections are sent a text message and an automated pre-recorded voice call two days before the election, while those in control villages receive no messages. Treatment messages provide information regarding the type of criminal charges and number of cases facing the major-party candidates in the recipient’s constituency. The message content for random subsets of the treatment villages additionally includes a sentence either notifying recipients that the message was also being shared with other individuals living in their area ("coordination" prime) or urging them to “break the habit” of ethnic-based voting. During the seventh phase of elections, we sent subscribers in randomly selected treated villages "placebo" messages only reminding them to get to know candidates before voting. In 2022, treated individuals in the fifth through seventh phase of elections received messages containing criminality information, or that information plus coordination prime, like in the fourth phase of 2017.
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Secondary Outcomes (End Points)
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Before
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After
In 2022: Voter beliefs: whether voters have accurate beliefs about candidate criminality; Voter attention: whether voters find criminality (and other attributes) salient; Voter decision weights: importance placed on each candidate attribute when deciding vote.
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