The Marocchinate: Collective memory or transmission of beliefs?

The survey will include an information-based intervention. Half of subjects will receive a text about the Syrian refugee crisis, while the other half will receive a text about environmental problems. Historical events, as described in Ghidoni & Schindler (2025) have generated an additional treatment and control condition we exploit in the analysis.

The survey will include an information-based intervention. Half of subjects will receive a short text about the Syrian refugee crisis, while the other half will receive a short text about environmental problems. Respondents will additionally be separated into a treatment vs a control group depending on whether their municipality of residence was visited by French Moroccan troops during World War II. This is the variation used in Ghidoni & Schindler (2025)

2025-10-08

2025-10-15

The probability of recalling Marocchinate (and the response time); the frequency with which knowledge about Marocchinate is traced to family versus environment; beliefs about likelihood of Syrians harassing women for oneself and ancestors

parties voted for in the last three elections for the lower house (2013, 2018, 2022), motives for the vote

The respondents will get asked several questions on their demographics, residence, as well as ancestral locations. We will ask several questions to assess the role of collective memory versus transmission of attitudes.

The survey will be administered by an online survey provider to a representative sample of the Italian population in the 6 regions of Italy we study: Abruzzo, Campania, Lazio, Molise, Tuscany, and Umbria.

The respondents will receive the following questions:

1. In which country were you born? <Italy/Other Country>
2. Did at least one of your parents migrate to Italy from abroad? <Yes/No>
3. Which region do you reside in? <Dropdown>
4. Which province do you reside in? <Dropdown>
5. Which municipality do you reside in? <Dropdown>
6. What is your gender? <Dropdown: Male/Female/Other/I rather not say>
7. What is your year of birth? <Input>
8. What is your civil status? <Dropdown>
9. What is your highest education level? <Dropdown>
10. What is your current employment situation? <Dropdown>
11. In which municipality did your ancestors reside in 1945 (or thereafter)? You can enter information for up to six ancestors.
• If you do not know the exact municipality, please provide the most precise location possible.
• If you do not have information about one or more of your ancestors, write “NA”.
• If one of your ancestors resided in a country other than Italy, please indicate the name of that country.
a. Father: <Input>
b. Mother: <Input>
c. Paternal grandfather: <Input>
d. Paternal grandmother: <Input>
e. Maternal grandfather: <Input>
f. Maternal grandmother: <Input>
12. A random 50% of subjects will be assigned to the Treatment group and see the following text:
Please read the following text carefully:
In 2015, Italy faced an extraordinary wave of migration, with over 150,000 arrivals in a single year. Many migrants came from Syria and African countries, such as Sudan, Nigeria, Eritrea, and Somalia. This migratory wave put strong pressure on the Italian reception system, arousing widespread concerns about security, the safety of Italian women, public order, and economic sustainability.
According to the message you just read, approximately how many migrants arrived in Italy in 2015?
(A) Less than 50,000 (B) Around 100,000 (C) Over 150,000 (D) I don’t know
A random 50% of subjects will be assigned to the Control group and see the following text:
Please read the following text carefully:
In 2015, Italy faced a series of extreme weather events. Numerous municipalities suffered floods, with more than 400 millimeters of rain falling in a single day. These events caused casualties and serious damage to houses, businesses, and agriculture. The management of the emergency aroused criticism from public opinion, with concerns about the government’s ability to deal with disasters and protect the affected communities.
According to the message you just read, approximately up to how many millimeters of rain falling in a single day occurred in Italy in 2015?
(A) Less than 200 (B) Around 300 (C) Over 400 (D) I don’t know
13. Do you know about the events commonly described as Marocchinate? <Yes/No><Timestamp>
14. Only if 12) = YES:
a. Can you describe in your own words what the Marocchinate were? <Text Input>
b. How was the story of the Marocchinate told to you, and what emotions or feelings did the person convey while telling it? <Text Input>
c. Where did you learn about Marocchinate? Check all that apply. <Ticks: Friends / Family / Neighbors / Local organizations / Local news or newspapers / National news or organizations / Schools / Other (specify).
Debriefing screen shown to all.
Marocchinate is a term used to describe acts of mass sexual violence and killings attributed to Moroccan soldiers who fought for France during World War II. These troops were part of the French Army and fought alongside the Allies, who were working to free Italy from German occupation. Reports of widespread violence emerged as the troops advanced after key battles.
15. In your opinion, if we consider 100 people from Syria and Northern Africa living in Italy, how many of them do you think would sexually harass an Italian woman? <Slider: 0%- 100%>
16. Now think back to when you were a child: how do you think the following people would have answered the previous question? The previous question was:
“In your opinion, if we consider 100 people from Syria and Northern Africa living in Italy, how many of them do you think would sexually harass an Italian woman?
• Your father <Slider>
• Your mother <Slider>
Your paternal grandfather <Slider>
• Your maternal grandfather <Slider>
• Your paternal grandmother <Slider>
• Your maternal grandmother <Slider>
• Your friends <Slider>
• Your teachers <Slider>
• Your classmates <Slider>
• Your neighbors <Slider>

17. For each national election, please indicate the party you voted for in the Chamber of Deputies:
a. 2008 General Election: <Dropdown: Il Popolo della Libertà; Italia dei Valori; La Sinistra l’Arcobaleno; Lega Nord; Partito Democratico; Unione di Centro; Other; I did not vote>
b. 2013 General Election: <Dropdown: Fratelli d'Italia; Il Popolo della Libertà; Lega Nord; Movimento 5 Stelle; Partito Democratico; Scelta Civica; Other; I did not vote>
c. 2018 General Election: <Dropdown: Forza Italia; Fratelli d'Italia; Lega; Liberi e Uguali; Movimento 5 Stelle; Partito Democratico; Other; I did not vote >
d. 2022 General Election: <Dropdown: Azione–Italia Viva; Forza Italia; Fratelli d'Italia; Lega; Movimento 5 Stelle; Partito Democratico; Other; I did not vote>
18. [conditional on answer to 16d.] Think about the last elections (2022 general elections), which of the following reasons would you say influenced your decision on whom to vote for most? <pick up to three>
a. The state of the economy
b. Inflation
c. Immigration
d. Pensions and retirement
e. The management of public services
f. National security and crime
g. Climate change and the environment
h. Other, namely [<text input>]
i. I don’t know
19. Do you have any comments or remarks <Text Input>

The analysis of these questions is described in more detail in the pre-analysis plan.

Randomization is done by Qualtrics, additionally the historical (quasi) randomization was done by some historical events as described in Ghidoni & Schindler (2015).

The randomization will occur at the respondent level. Additionally, for the historical variation, it occurs at the municipality level; a respondent's municipality of residence will hence determine their assignment.

No

n/a

3,000 respondents

Based on the randomization by Qualtrics, we will have 1,500 respondents in each information arm. We expect (based on municipality size) to have around 975 respondents from municipalities with FEC exposure and 2,025 from municipalities without FEC exposure. The de facto distribution will depend on the response rates of the sampled individuals.

Pre-Analysis Plan