Secondary Outcomes (explanation)
Measuring smallholders’ intermediate outcomes
1. Knowledge of (sustainable) farming (both production enhanced production and environmentally sustainable production).
To measure smallholder’s farming knowledge, we developed a standard farming knowledge test jointly with agronomists from China Agricultural University. The test consist seven sets of specific farming knowledge include seeding, land tillage, plant root management, irrigation, fertilization, plant protection, and harvest. In total the standard test has 20 specific questions associated with all different segments of farming practices. This farming knowledge will be used to measure smallholder’s knowledge about how to improve its agricultural production and ensure a sustainable resource use and environmental conservation. Specifically, we will only measure the main decision maker within the household. We present the standard test in the Appendix Table A1.
2. Awareness of consequences of unsustainable farming. Measuring smallholder’s awareness of consequences of unsustainable farming practices, we specifically focus on smallholder’s use of chemical inputs and irrigation. First, the non-point source pollution caused by inappropriate use of chemical fertilizer (e.g., synthetic fertilizer, carbamide, phosphate fertilizer) and pesticide and herbicide are the main sources of pollution. How smallholders perceive about such a chemical pollution impacts the environmental condition and if smallholders are aware of these pollutions. We measure smallholders’ awareness of consequences of chemical fertilizer and pesticide and herbicide with the following set questions (Bamberg and Schmidt, 2003; Stern et al., 1999): (Extremely disagree [1] ~ Extremely agree [7]).
Second, water scarcity is another most pressing environmental problem in the North China Plain. Irrigation is one of the main farming practices consuming a large amount of fresh clean water. We measure smallholder’s awareness of water scarcity with the following set of questions (Extremely disagree [1] ~ Extremely agree [7], Bamberg and Schmidt, 2003; Stern et al., 1999).
3. Perceived elasticity of input factors. To measure smallholders’ perceived elasticity of different input factors on agricultural output, we mainly focus on two primary input—chemical input and smallholder’s labor input. we developed the following two groups of questions with base fertilization/top-dressing fertilization, plant protection (pesticide and herbicide use) and labor input.
"Based on your largest piece of land, how much additional wheat do you think it can produce per mu if you apply an additional 5kg of synthetic fertilizer per mu in the base fertilization? ( )kg per unit of land"
"Based on your largest piece of land and the current amount of synthetic fertilizer you used for wheat production, if you use 5kg less synthetic fertilizer per mu in the base fertilization, how much wheat do you think you might lose per mu? ( )kg per unit of land"
4. Attitudes and perceived behavioral control on sustainable farming. To measure smallholder’s attitudes towards the sustainable farming practices introduced by the STB and SMS interventions, two specific sets of sustainable farming practices are measured by using the following set of questions.
a. “Do you think that adopting {the recommended farming practices} is a right choice to do.
b. Do you believe that adopting {the recommended farming practices} is good towards the environment?
c. Do you support further disseminate these { the recommended farming practices} to others?
d. Do you believe that your farm is a good case to apply these { the recommended farming practices}?
e. Do you think that you and your family can afford any technic risks that caused by {the recommended farming practices}?
f. Do you think that you could solve any practical problems when adopt these {the recommended farming practices}?”
Measuring smallholder’s behavioral outcomes
We first measure smallholder's farming practices to enhance agricultural production. The field practices that could enhance smallholder’s agricultural production can be summarized in six specific segments, including land preparation, seeding, fertilization, irrigation, plant protection and harvest.
We then measure smallholder's farming practices to improve environmental sustainability. The field practices that could enhance smallholder’s environmental sustainability mainly focuses on the chemical inputs—chemical fertilizer use, and the pesticide and herbicide use.
[Detailed survey instruments are presented in the attached support document]