Abstract
Introduction
Adolescence is a pivotal stage of human development characterized by rapid physical growth and marked psychosocial transitions. During this period, individuals often experience heightened sensitivity to anxiety, stress, and emotional insta-bility [1,2]. Regular physical activity has been consistently shown to mitigate these risks by enhancing mood, promoting resilience, and improving self-regulation [3–5]. Furthermore, engagement in exercise supports self-esteem, facilitates stress management, and encourages social interaction, which together contribute to long-term mental well-being [6,7].
Wrestling is a demanding sport that combines endurance, agility, and self-control. It has been suggested that introducing the sport at an early age promotes not only physical conditioning but also psychological discipline [8]. Beyond its physical intensity, wrestling emphasizes mental focus and emotional balance, as success often depends on psychological control over one’s opponent [9]. This unique combination of physical and cognitive challenge positions wrestling as a potential tool for improving self-discipline, confidence, and stress tolerance. Research on combat sports generally supports these benefits, indicating lower levels of cognitive and somatic anxiety and higher self-esteem among participants [10,11]. Likewise, in-creases in sport experience are often linked to improved self-regulation and overall psychological resilience [12].
Evidence from longitudinal and systematic studies shows that sustained physical activity during adolescence is asso-ciated with reduced symptoms of anxiety and depression and with greater psychological well-being [7,13]. Psychosocial factors such as self-esteem, resilience, and social support appear to mediate these positive effects, reinforcing the notion that physical activity can serve as an effective mental-health intervention. Within this context, combat sports may foster not only physical development but also emotional control, self-efficacy, and adaptive adjustment [11].
Despite these promising associations, the psychological effects of wrestling training have received limited empirical attention, as most existing research focuses on physiological or performance outcomes. Given that adolescence is a period of increased psychological vulnerability, examining potential protective influences is particularly valuable. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate how structured wrestling training influences psychological well-being, anxiety, and resilience in adolescent boys. We hypothesized that participants engaged in regular wrestling training would exhibit higher well-being, lower anxiety, and greater psychological resilience compared with those in a control group.
Materials and Methods
Study design and Participants
Thirty healthy male adolescents voluntarily participated in this randomized controlled study. Participants were ran-domly assigned to a Wrestling Group (WG; n = 15) or a Control Group (CG; n = 15) using an online randomization tool (www.randomizer.org). The required sample size was determined using the G*Power program (version 3.1.9.2; Düsseldorf, Germany). Power analysis indicated that a minimum of 12 participants per group would be sufficient to detect significant effects (effect size = 0.80; actual power = 0.89), taking psychological resilience as the primary outcome variable [14]. To account for possible dropouts, the sample size was increased by 25%, resulting in 15 participants per group (n = 30). Inclu-sion criteria required that participants (a) were between 12–15 years of age, (b) had no previous experience in wrestling or organized combat sports, and (c) had not engaged in regular physical training (> 60 minutes per week) during the previous six months. Exclusion criteria included any musculoskeletal injury, chronic illness, or psychological disorder that could inter-fere with participation. All participants and their parents were fully informed about the study’s purpose and procedures, and written informed consent was obtained from the parents or legal guardians. The study protocol was approved by the Ethics Committee of Gümüşhane University (Approval No: 2025/6, June 25, 2025) and conducted in accordance with the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki.
Experimental design
This study employed a randomized pretest–posttest control group design. Both groups underwent baseline assessments before the intervention and post-tests after six weeks. The Wrestling Group participated in a structured wrestling training program, while the Control Group maintained their usual daily routines without additional exercise. Participants visited the laboratory on three separate occasions. During the first visit, they were informed about the training protocol and completed familiarization procedures. The second visit (one week later) included baseline testing. The third visit occurred after the six-week intervention, during which all post-training assessments were conducted. All measurements were carried out under identical environmental conditions (temperature 22–24°C, relative humidity 45–55%) and supervised by the same research team to ensure consistency. The experimental flow is presented in Figure 1.
Figure 1. Experimental design
The inclusion criteria were as follows: a) Candidates must have at least two years of active football training, b) be between the ages of 10 and 13, c) be in good general health, d) have no known respiratory or cardiovascular conditions, e) provide written informed parental consent. The following criteria were used to determine exclusion from the study: The subject's medical history includes the following: a) A history of lung disease or a current upper respiratory tract infection, b) A history of current injury, c) Medication use that may affect breathing or performance, d)Individuals with FEV1/FVC<70 e) Participation in similar studies within the last six months
Body composition measurement
In the study, body composition (e.g., body fat percentage, muscle mass) was assessed using a Jawon Medical GAIA 359 Plus bioelectrical impedance analyzer (Jawon Medical Co., South Korea), with data managed through the BodyPass software (GAIA 359 Plus version). This device was used to confirm that all participants had comparable baseline body characteristics. Body weight was recorded using the same analyzer, while height (cm) was measured with a portable stadiometer (Seca 213, Seca GmbH & Co. KG, Hamburg, Germany).
Sport Anxiety Scale-2 (SAS-2)
The Sport Anxiety Scale-2 (SAS-2) is a revised instrument originally developed to assess competitive anxiety in athletes. The updated version includes 15 items rated on a four-point Likert scale and provides a multidimensional view of anxiety symptoms related to sport performance [15,16]. The Turkish adaptation and validation study conducted by Akman et al. [15] confirmed its reliability and construct validity for adolescent athletes. The scale measures three distinct aspects of compet-itive anxiety: worry, which refers to outcome-related and self-focused concerns; somatic anxiety, which reflects physio-logical tension and physical manifestations of stress; and concentration disruption, which describes difficulties in main-taining attentional focus during performance. Higher scores on each subdimension indicate more severe anxiety symptoms in that domain, and all items in this study were evaluated using a four-point response format ranging from “not at all” to “very much.”
The WHO-5 Well-Being Index
The WHO-5 Well-Being Index is a brief and effective screening tool for assessing psychological well-being. The applicability study of the Turkish version of the WHO-5 was conducted by Eser et al. [17]. Participants are asked to indicate the extent to which each of the five statements has been true for them over the past 14 days. Items are scored on a scale from 0 (at no time) to 5 (all of the time), resulting in a total raw score ranging from 0 (absence of well-being) to 25 (maximal well-being). A standardized 100-point score can also be calculated by multiplying the raw score by four. The WHO-5 can also be used to monitor individual changes over time, with a score change of 10% or more (increase or decrease) considered clinically significant [18].
The Brief Psychological Resilience Scale (BPRS)
The Brief Psychological Resilience Scale (BPRS) was originally developed by Smith et al. [19] to assess an individual’s ability to recover from stress and maintain emotional balance, and it was later adapted for Turkish samples by Doğan [20]. The instrument consists of six items scored on a five-point Likert scale ranging from “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree,” with three of the items (2, 4, and 6) reverse-coded. After adjustment of these items, total scores may range from 6 to 30, where higher values represent greater psychological resilience. The BPRS offers a practical and time-efficient assessment method with demonstrated reliability and cultural applicability in Turkish populations [20]. In the current study, the internal con-sistency of the BPRS was found to be acceptable, with a Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of 0.79 (Table 2).
Weekly training program
The intervention consisted of a six-week wrestling training program conducted three times per week (Tuesday, Thursday, and Saturday) for 60 minutes per session. Each session incorporated fundamental wrestling components, including basic stances and balance, mobility and entry techniques, contact and defensive fundamentals, strength and agility drills, technical inte-gration, and combined practice sessions (Table 1). Previous literature indicates that a training frequency of at least three sessions per week over a period of six to twelve weeks is critical for achieving meaningful physical and neuromuscular adaptations [21,22]. Therefore, a six-week training period was considered appropriate for the present study. The training protocol was meticul